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AnAm PaTeL!!! :)

female, singleCarrollton
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AnAm PaTeL!!! :) ata >
AnAm

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about me:
YA ALI MADAD & SALAAM...heyy everyone...my name is Anam...I am 20 and born on 23 march....i am 5'1..yeah short and proud...i am a student and going to be a Medical Assistant...i love to sing in urdu, love rain, love roses, like cherries, like nature, love watching movies and listening to music...i love spending time with my family cuz i am a family girl...love going to jamatkhana...and like to spend time with my friedns...thats all! :)

age:
20

birthday:
March 23
location:
Carrollton, Texas

relationship status:
single
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Sura Rahman - Beautiful, heart trembling quran recitation

Kya Yehi Pyar Hai

" JUBLEE DANCE " Dallas TX USA 07/11/07 pt2

" JUBLEE DANCE " Dallas TX USA 11th Jully 07

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her testimonials

LIVING LIFE AS: Yes!! I have finally decided to write about this sweet angel..well at first she ll leave u amazed..with her glamor and beauty...they she ll amaze u more with her wit and sense of humor...and then finally she l amaze you by the way she gets closer to your heart day by day..she is one sweet creation of GOD..shes a little reserved in her own special way but then beware if she gets closer shes gonna be with u life long...and her smile...m the biggest fan of her smile and those twinkling eyes...life jeena seekha deti hai...well ANAM, sweetie I will always be there for you...and you can always count on me for anything that you want.. ..I really hope and will pray that all your dreams should come true..and that you should always always keep that smile ON!!!!LOVE YOU FOR EVER ,,,WITH LOTS OF DEEP KISSES ON UR ROSY LIPS......!!!!!

LIVING LIFE AS: LUV ME OR HATE MEBOTH R N MA FAVOURIF U LUV MEI'LL ALWAYS B N YO HEARTIF U HATE MEI'LL ALWAYS B N YO MIND.....[")]I MAY NOT ALWAYS GIVEWATS EXPECTED OF A FRND,I GET 2 BUSY WIT MA OWN LIFBUT DEEP INSIDE MELIES A HEART........DAT VALUES U MORE DANU'LL EVER KNOW....... love u 4 ever......

M®.HÃM¿ÿÀ]^-- -: Ek safar EysaLife is a Challenge.................Meet it.Life is a Gift...........................Accept it.Life is an Adventure..............Dare it.Life is a Sorrow.....................Overcome it.Life is a Tragedy....................Face it.Life is a Duty.........................Perform it.Life is a Game.......................Play it.Life is a Mystery...................Unfold it.Life is a Song........................Sing it.Life is an Opportunity...........Take it.Life is a Journey....................Complete it.Life is a Promise...................Fulfil it.Life is Love...........................Enjoy it.Life is a Beauty.....................Praise it.Life is a Spirit........................Realise it.Life is a struggle...................Fight It

M®.HÃM¿ÿÀ]^-- -: F'SHIP IS NOT COLLECTION OF HEARTSBUT IT IS SELECTION OF HEARTSALL FREINDS ARE NOT TRUEBUT TRUE FREIDS ARE VERY FEWAND I ALWAYS LIKE YOU.....ask the God toAlways protects you and bless you:¨¨¨_..._¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨ _..._,.~´¨¨`~.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨.~`¨ ¨ ~./¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨}¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨{ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨\.\¨._.'`~~/.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨\~~`'._¨ /.{_,}¨ ¨-(. ¨¨¨¨¨.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨)- ¨ {,_}.¨,'-,___.' ¨¨¨¨¨ .-. ¨¨¨¨¨¨ '.___,-',¨./¨ ¨_ /¨¨¨..Hi,..¨¨¨¨¨\ _¨ \¨/¨ ¨.`_/¨¨¨....Have ..¨¨¨¨\_ `¨ ¨\./¨ ¨\ /.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨Nice.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨.\¨ ¨/ ¨ \/¨ ¨ .'--;_ ¨¨¨¨¨ Day.¨¨¨¨¨¨¨_;--' .¨ ¨.\¨ ¨ ¨ ¨_\`\¨¨¨¨ .¨¨¨¨¨ ¨/` ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ /_\¨¨¨¨¨¨/ `-._¨ `¨¨¨¨¨ ¨\¨ ¨.___.-' \¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨¨`--`-¨¨¨¨ ^^^^^^^^`--

M®.HÃM¿ÿÀ]^-- -: I wish for you...Comfort on difficult days,Smiles when sadness intrudes,Rainbows to follow the clouds,=••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••===••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••==Laughter to kiss your lips,Sunsets to warm you heart,Gentle hugs when spirits sag,=••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••===••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••==Friendship to brighten your being,Beauty for your eyes to see,Confidence for when you doubt,=••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••===••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••==Faith so you can believe,Courage to know yourself,Patience to accept the truth,And love to complete your life.=••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••===••@••=••@••=••@••=••@••==

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SMS Me - Absolutely FREE SMS !!!
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broadcasting via radio and television

Entry for March 21, 2008
Radio and Television BroadcastingI INTRODUCTION Radio and Television Broadcasting, primary means by which information and entertainment are delivered to the public in virtually every nation around the world. The term broadcasting refers to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio signals (radio) or audiovisual signals (television) that are accessible to a wide population via standard, readily available receivers. The term has its origins in the medieval agricultural practice of “broadcasting,” which refers to planting seeds by scattering them across a field.Broadcasting is a crucial instrument of modern social and political organization. At its peak of influence in the mid-20th century, radio and television broadcasting was employed by political leaders to address entire nations. Because of radio and television’s capacity to reach and influence large numbers of people, and owing to the limited spectrum of frequencies available, governments have commonly regulated broadcasting wherever it has been practiced. (For more information, see the Regulation of Broadcasting section of this article.)In the early 1980s, new technologies—such as cable television and videocassette players—began eroding the dominance of broadcasting in mass communication, splitting audiences into smaller, culturally distinct segments. Previously the only means of delivering radio and television to home receivers, broadcasting is now just one of several delivery systems available to listeners and viewers. Sometimes broadcasting is used in a broader sense to include delivery methods such as wire-borne (cable) transmission, but these are more accurately called “narrowcasting” because they are generally limited to paying subscribers. II THE EMERGENCE OF BROADCAST COMMUNICATION For most of history, long-distance communication depended primarily upon conventional means of transportation. A message could be moved aboard a ship, on horseback, by pigeon, or with a human courier, but in virtually all cases it had to be conveyed as a mass through space like any other material commodity. This basic condition of human communication ended in the 19th century due to a series of technological advances. A Radio Broadcasting The story of radio begins in the development of an earlier medium, the telegraph, which was the first instantaneous system of information movement. Patented simultaneously in 1837 in the United States by inventor Samuel F. B. Morse and in Britain by scientists Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke, the electromagnetic telegraph realized the age-old human desire for a means of communication free from the obstacles of long-distance transportation. The first public telegraph line, completed in 1844, ran 64 km (40 mi) from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore, Maryland. Morse's first message, “What hath God wrought?”—transmitted as a coded series of long and short electronic impulses (see International Morse Code)—conveyed his awareness of the momentous proportions of the achievement.Telegraphy proved so useful and popular that over the next half century wires were strung across much of the world, including a transatlantic undersea cable (1866) connecting Europe and North America. The instantaneous passage of a message over a distance that required hours, days, or weeks to traverse by ordinary transport was so radically unfamiliar an experience that some telegraph offices collected admission fees from spectators wanting to witness the feat for themselves.As society began to depend on the telegraph for everything from birthday greetings to the news of momentous events, the limitations of telegraphic communication became apparent. Telegraphy depended on the building and maintenance of a complex system of receiving stations wired to each other along a fixed route and requiring trained operators to transmit and receive messages. The telephone, patented by Scottish-born American inventor Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, made instantaneous communication possible via a desktop appliance available to untrained users. However, it required an even more complex system of wires and switching stations than the telegraph. Neither device could be used by ships at sea or reach the many remote communities that could not afford the costs of lines and stations. Although neither the telephone nor the telegraph could address large numbers of people simultaneously, mass circulation newspapers and magazines benefited greatly from the two devices, translating wired reports into print for mass consumption. News agencies such as the Associated Press and Reuters are still often called wire services, referring to their beginnings as telegraph services.A1 Radio Experiments Scientists in many countries worked to devise a system that could overcome the limitations of the telegraph wire. In 1895 Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi transmitted a message in Morse code that was picked up 3 km (2 mi) away by a receiving device that had no wired connection to Marconi's transmitting device. With this transmission, Marconi demonstrated that an electronic signal could be cast broadly (broadcast) through space so that receivers at random points could capture it. The closed circuit of instant communication was at last opened by a so-called wireless telegraph. The invention was also called a radiotelegraph (later shortened to radio), because its signal moved outward in all directions, or radially, from the point of transmission. The age of broadcasting had begun.Unable to obtain funding in Italy, Marconi found willing supporters for his research in Britain, a country that depended on quick and effective deployment of its worldwide naval and commercial shipping fleets to maintain its empire. Marconi moved to London in 1896 and, with the help of financial backers, founded the British Marconi Company to develop and market his invention for military and industrial uses. Within five years a wireless signal had been transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada. For his work in wireless telegraphy, Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1909.Within a decade of Marconi’s invention, wireless telegraphy had developed into a basic tool of the world maritime industry. Many countries soon required by law that vessels engaged in international trade have a radio transmitter and a certified operator aboard at all times. In 1904 the United Fruit Company hired American inventor Lee De Forest to help build a series of radio broadcasting stations to increase efficiency in shipping perishable goods, especially bananas, from Central America to the United States. These linked stations, which shared information on weather and market conditions, constituted the first broadcasting network. Public awareness of radio was greatly increased in 1912 with the heavily publicized Titanic tragedy. About one-third of the passengers aboard the sinking ship were rescued after wireless telegraph operators on the North American mainland picked up Titanic’s distress signal and dispatched help to the scene. The earliest radios were truly wireless telegraphs in that they transmitted and received their messages in Morse code. The work of Canadian inventor Reginald Fessenden, later elaborated upon by De Forest, allowed for the broadcast transmission of a wider range of sounds, including the human voice and music. In 1914 American inventor Edwin Howard Armstrong patented the regenerative circuit, an innovation in amplifying radio signals that made broadcasting to the general public possible. Up to this point, little attention had been given to general consumer applications of the new technology. Nonmaritime broadcasting was dominated by amateur experimenters and hobbyists. In 1909 American entrepreneur Charles Herrold established the Herrold College of Wireless and Engineering in San Jose, California, and he and his students broadcasted news and music to receivers they had placed in local hotel lobbies. Backyard tinkerers all over North America built their own transmitters and used them to voice opinions, pass along information, recite poems, play music, or otherwise entertain their fellow amateur enthusiasts, known as hams. Nonbroadcasters built receiver-only units known as crystal sets. Great pride was taken in homemade equipment, and radio clubs sprang up around the United States. Listening for distant signals, a practice known as “DXing,” became popular and can be thought of as a primitive ancestor of Internet surfing. The U.S. government, which began requiring licenses for radio operators in 1912, issued more than 8,000 licenses to hobbyist broadcasters by 1917.A2 World War I and Early Regulation With the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918) in Europe, wireless transmission proved an invaluable military tool on land, sea, and air. Impressed by its strategic applications, and wary of its potential as an instrument of espionage and mass propaganda, U.S. president Woodrow Wilson banned nonmilitary broadcasting when the United States entered the war in 1917. Civilian equipment was confiscated under executive order, and regulatory power over broadcasting was transferred from the U.S. Department of Commerce to the Department of the Navy. The war also aided the development of radio technology, as governments on both sides of the conflict poured money into research. Armstrong, a decorated military pilot who served with U.S. forces in France, is credited with having made great improvements in air-to-ground and air-to-air radio systems.A3 The Golden Age of Radio Grand Ole Opry, TennesseeThe Grand Ole Opry traces its roots to a local radio show called “Barn Dance,” which broadcast live country music beginning in 1925. Credited with popularizing country music, the Grand Ole Opry won a national radio network spot in 1939. The Opry is the oldest continuous radio show in the United States, broadcasting live every week from a theater at Opryland in Nashville, Tennessee.Jeff Greenberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.Early evidence of a systematic scheme for broadcasting to the general public can be found in a 1916 memorandum written by David Sarnoff, an employee of Marconi's U.S. branch, which would become the Radio Corporation of America (now part of General Electric Company; see RCA Corporation). Sarnoff proposed “a plan of development which would make radio a household ‘utility’ in the same sense as the piano or phonograph.” Sarnoff's memo was not given serious consideration by Marconi management, and President Wilson’s suspension of nonmilitary broadcasting in 1917 made it impossible for the company to immediately explore Sarnoff's ideas. After World War I ended in 1918, however, several manufacturing companies in the United States began to explore and implement ideas for the mass-marketing of home radio receivers designed for casual use.In an effort to boost radio sales in peacetime, the Westinghouse Electric Corporation (now CBS Corporation) of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, established what many historians consider the first commercially owned radio station to offer a schedule of programming to the general public. Known by the call letters KDKA, the station received its license in October 1920 and began service from a studio inside a canvas tent built on the roof of a Westinghouse factory. Frank Conrad, a radio hobbyist and veteran engineer with experience in civilian and military radio research, ran the project. Responsible for the station's programming as well as its technical operation, he aired various forms of entertainment, including recorded music generated by a phonograph placed before a microphone. KDKA charged no user fees to listeners and carried no paid advertisements; instead, the station was financed by Westinghouse to encourage people to buy home radio receivers.Depression-Era RadioIntroduced during the early 1920s, commercial radio thrived during the Great Depression (1930s) as a national forum for popular entertainment and news. Families gathered around the radio each day to listen to adventure serials and vaudeville-style comedy.Corry/Archive PhotosOther manufacturers soon followed Westinghouse's example. The General Electric Company (GE) began broadcasting over station WGY, located at its corporate headquarters in Schenectady, New York. The chairman of RCA, Owen D. Young, gave Sarnoff permission to develop company sales of radios for home entertainment. Sarnoff soon opened stations in New York City and Washington, D.C., and in 1926 he began organizing the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), an RCA subsidiary created for the purpose of broadcasting programs via a nationwide network of stations.Edgar BergenAmerican ventriloquist Edgar Bergen, right, performed with his famous hand-manipulated dummy Charlie McCarthy in vaudeville, radio, television, and motion pictures during the mid-1900s. In his act Bergen would serve as the straight man for the dummy’s irreverent wisecracks. One of the most successful ventriloquists of all time, Bergen possessed agile vocal skills and a creative stage demeanor.THE BETTMANN ARCHIVEAnother important early broadcaster was the American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T, Inc.). Barred from manufacturing radios by the terms of its telephone antitrust exemptions, AT&T explored the possibilities of what the company called toll broadcasting (charging fees in return for airing commercial advertisements on its stations). The first known instance of an advertiser paying for a broadcast commercial took place in 1922, when AT&T accepted a fee from the Queensboro Corporation to air a 12-minute pitch for the sale of cooperative apartments on WEAF, the company’s New York City station. Fearing legal action by radio companies that might threaten its telephone franchises, however, AT&T sold its stations to RCA. In return for leaving the broadcasting business, AT&T was granted the exclusive right to provide the connections that would link local stations around the country to the NBC network.RCA Corporate Logo, Around 1950The Radio Corporation of America acquired the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929. The newly named RCA-Victor Company adapted for its trademark a painting titled His Master’s Voice by English photographer and painter Francis Barraud in 1895. The painting shows Nipper, part bull terrier and part fox terrier, listening quizzically to an old-fashioned phonograph-speaker as though trying to locate the source of his master’s voice.CSU Archives/The Everett Collection, Inc.The sale of radios more than justified the expense of operating broadcasting services for RCA, GE, Westinghouse, and other radio set manufacturers. According to estimates by the National Association of Broadcasters, in 1922 there were 60,000 households in the United States with radios; by 1929 the number had topped 10 million. But increases in sales of radio receivers could not continue forever. Broadcasters needed a new incentive to produce and transmit programs once the home radio market matured. The sale of advertising time loomed as a promising growth area. In Britain, and in the many countries that followed its lead, broadcasting was developing in a different way. Radio owners paid yearly license fees to the government, which were turned over directly to an independent state enterprise, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The BBC in turn produced news and entertainment programming for its network of stations. The editorial and artistic integrity of the BBC was to be insured by its funding mechanism, which was designed to isolate it from immediate political pressures.Jack BennyAmerican comedian Jack Benny hosted The Jack Benny Show on radio from 1932 to 1955 and on television from 1955 to 1964. One of Benny’s recurring jokes revolved around his age: He was always 39.The Everett Collection, Inc.In the United States, on the other hand, it was widely accepted that broadcasting was a commercial enterprise that should pay its own way without government aid or interference. However, there was some opposition to the development of broadcasting as a primarily commercial medium. Herbert Hoover, who as secretary of commerce was in charge of broadcast regulation, expressed his disapproval of commercialism at the 1922 Radio Conference in Washington, D.C., saying he found it “inconceivable that we should allow so great a possibility for service and for news and for entertainment and education to be drowned in advertising chatter.” By the late 1920s, nonetheless, the direction of broadcasting as an industry, art, and technology in the United States had shifted decisively to mass distribution of popular culture funded by commercial advertising.George BurnsAmerican comedian George Burns, whose entertainment career began in vaudeville, made his radio debut in 1932, starring in a popular show with his wife, Gracie Allen. The program moved to television in 1950. Burns and Allen also performed together in several motion pictures. After Allen’s retirement in 1958, Burns continued to work in television and cinema.Icon InternationalNoncommercial broadcasting would play only a minor role in the rise of American broadcasting. In the agricultural Midwest, state universities saw radio as a natural tool for broadcasting educational programming to rural areas, and schools such as the University of Iowa, Ohio State University, and the University of Wisconsin established stations supported with funds set aside by state legislatures. There would not be a coast-to-coast noncommercial radio network in the United States until the formation of National Public Radio (NPR) in 1970.Radio DramasDuring the 1920s and 1930s, radio listeners could turn on their radios and hear action-packed adventure dramas complete with sound effects. Whole families gathered around the radio every day at a given time to listen to the next episode of their favorite radio adventure story, such as “The Shadow.” The stenode radio-stat, shown here, could indicate the radio station on the map at the top of the receiver.The Shadow (R) & (C) Advance Magazine Publishers Inc. Used with permission. Courtesy of Gordon Skene Sound Collection/Hulton DeutschIn 1927 RCA initiated two transcontinental radio services through NBC, its subsidiary: the Red Network (usually just called NBC) and the Blue Network. The Columbia Broadcasting System (see CBS Corporation) radio service was established in 1928. Originally launched by the Columbia Phonograph Record Company as a means of promoting its recording artists, it was saved from bankruptcy after less than a year of operation by the Paley family of Philadelphia. William S. Paley, who took charge of CBS, and David Sarnoff, who now headed NBC and its parent company (RCA), would become the two dominant personalities in the American broadcasting industry for the next 50 years. As the radio networks grew in size, they were able to bring a consistently high level of entertainment to even the most remote corners of the nation. In 1934 a group of nonnetwork (or independent) stations, led by WGN in Chicago, Illinois, and WOR in New York City, formed a cooperative programming and news venture, the Mutual Broadcasting System, to compete against the network programs of NBC and CBS stations. By 1934 almost 600 radio stations were broadcasting to more than 20 million homes in the United States. The radio had emerged as a familiar household item, usually built into a substantial piece of wooden furniture placed in the family living room. It became the primary source for news and entertainment for much of the nation. Despite the Great Depression that affected the economy of the United States during the 1930s, American commercial radio broadcasting had grown to a $100-million industry by the middle of that decade.A4 Radio in World War II Roosevelt at WorkUnited States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933-1945) first achieved national attention when he gave a rousing speech at the Democratic Party’s 1924 national convention. Roosevelt is heard here giving one of his “fireside chats,” informal speeches he regularly delivered to the nation by radio.Courtesy Gordon Skene Sound Collection. All rights reserved./Globe Photos, Inc.Radio broadcasting reached its height in global influence and worldwide prestige during World War II (1939-1945), when it carried war news directly from the battlefront into the homes of millions of listeners. This conflict became, in many ways, a “radio war.” American commentator Edward R. Murrow created a sensation with his eyewitness descriptions of street scenes in London during German bombing raids, delivering these accounts from the rooftop of the city’s CBS news bureau. American president Franklin Delano Roosevelt had often used radio to bypass the press and directly address the American people with his so-called fireside chats during the Great Depression, and he continued to do so throughout the war. The radio speeches of German leader Adolf Hitler helped set the conditions for war and genocide in Europe, and the radio appeal from Japanese emperor Hirohito to his nation for unconditional surrender helped end World War II following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.B The Introduction of Television Television Sets from 1950sTelevision pictures are formed by the transmission of a succession of tiny tonal elements on a screen, which appear as moving images to the human eye. The electronics giant Radio Corporation of America financed the development of early television, and by 1955, 67 percent of American households had television sets.THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE/CORBIS-BETTMANNRadio’s success spurred technology companies to make substantial investments in the research and development of a new form of audiovisual broadcasting called television, or TV. Unlike radio, television broadcasting did not go through a period of experimentation by amateurs. It was obvious to commercial broadcasters that enormous profits were to be made from such an invention as an advertising tool, and the dominant companies in communications technology raced to perfect it.B1 Origins The invention of television was a lengthy, collaborative process. An early milestone was the successful transmission of an image in 1884 by German inventor Paul Nipkow. His mechanical system, known as the rotating or Nipkow disk, was further developed by Charles Francis Jenkins, who made a telecast of a short film to U.S. government officials in Washington, D.C., in 1925, and by Scottish scientist John Logie Baird, who broadcast a televised image in 1926 to an audience at the Royal Academy of Science in London. In 1928 Herbert Ives, an engineer working for AT&T, offered what was perhaps the most spectacular demonstration of mechanical television to that point, transmitting color images of a bouquet of roses and an American flag to two audiences simultaneously in New York City and Washington, D.C. However, the proven capability of the electronic tube system that had been developed for radio turned financial and scientific attention toward that technology and away from research on the rotating disk.The earliest U.S. patent for an all-electronic television system was granted in 1927 to a young Philo T. Farnsworth, who transmitted a picture of a U.S. dollar sign using his so-called image dissector tube in the laboratories of the Philadelphia Storage Battery Company (Philco). Meanwhile, the three radio technology powerhouses—General Electric, Westinghouse, and RCA—were cooperating closely with each other. General Electric and Westinghouse owned substantial shares of RCA stock, and the companies shared a collection of radio patents valuable to the development of television. In 1930 they consolidated their television research efforts at an RCA facility in New Jersey under the direction of Russian immigrant scientist Vladimir Zworykin. Historians usually credit Farnsworth, Zworykin, or both with the invention of television.B2 Early Broadcasts Ed WynnComedian Ed Wynn introduces the popular television program “Camel Comedy Caravan” of the early 1950s. Like other early American television personalities, including Milton Berle and Jack Benny, Wynn’s career began in vaudeville, moved to radio, and continued in television.CORBIS-BETTMANN/Archive FilmsDuring the 1930s several companies around the world actively prepared to introduce television to the public. As early as 1935, the BBC initiated experimental television broadcasts in London for several hours each day. That same year, CBS hired American theater, film, and radio critic Gilbert Seldes as a consultant on its television-programming development project. RCA unveiled television to the American public in grand style at the 1939 New York World’s Fair, with live coverage of the fair's opening ceremonies. This included a speech by President Roosevelt—the first televised appearance of an American president. Daily telecasts were made from the RCA pavilion at the fair. Visitors were invited to experience television viewing and were given the opportunity to walk in front of television cameras and see themselves on monitors.With the American entry into World War II at the end of 1941, television experimentation in the United States was virtually suspended, although radar research would contribute several advances to the field. As a measure of the importance that broadcasting technology had achieved, NBC's David Sarnoff received a commission from the U.S. Army to supervise its field communications and was promoted to the rank of general.B3 Post-World War II Popularity Early TelevisionWith the advent of television, the radio was quickly displaced from living rooms to the bedroom, the bathroom, or the kitchen. This television and radiogram, exhibited by Decca at the 19th National Radio and Television Exhibition in London in 1952, combined both radio and television in one console. The size of this television allowed large groups of people to watch such family favorites as “I Love Lucy,” which aired from 1951 until 1957. Lucille Ball and Edward Everett Horton are shown here in an episode of this popular comedy show.Hulton Deutsch Collection; THE BETTMANN ARCHIVETechnically, network broadcasting takes place when local stations of different regions simultaneously transmit the same signal. Four companies stood ready to initiate network television broadcasting in the United States immediately following the end of World War II in 1945. Two of the companies, NBC and CBS, had made vast fortunes from radio broadcasting and were well prepared to dominate the television industry. The remaining two, the American Broadcasting Company (now ABC, Inc.) and the DuMont Television Network, were competing without the advantage of such previous commercial success. ABC had been created in 1943 when the government won a lawsuit forcing RCA to sell off one of its two national radio networks. RCA’s Blue Network had been sold to Edward J. Noble, owner of the Lifesavers Candy Company, who renamed it the American Broadcasting Company. ABC managed to survive the early years of television through a corporate merger and imaginative programming innovations, many of them instituted by Leonard Goldenson, who joined Sarnoff and Paley as the third great founding mogul of American television. But ABC remained a poor third place in the programming ratings (estimates of the percentage of television viewers tuned to a particular program) for decades; it would finally catch up to its rivals in the late 1970s. The DuMont Network, owned by American television manufacturer Allen B. DuMont, was the only television network launched by a company without prior broadcasting experience. It went out of business in 1955.Other companies unveiled plans to enter the television-broadcasting field during the early years, but they were effectively blocked by governmental regulatory decisions pushed for by the broadcasting giants. In 1948, for example, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the U.S. government agency that regulates broadcasting, instituted a four-year moratorium on the issuance of new TV station licenses. This freeze kept newcomers out of the broadcasting business while the radio companies solidified their hold on television. In addition, the FCC initially made only the 12 very high frequency (VHF) channels available for broadcasting, prohibiting use of the 69 ultra high frequency (UHF) channels. This action created an artificial scarcity of frequencies, preventing interested companies from operating television stations or networks. UHF licenses were eventually granted, but it was not until 1964 that all sets sold in the United States were required to have UHF as well as VHF tuners. Lucille BallThe popular television situation comedy “I Love Lucy” (1951-1957) starred American actor and comedian Lucille Ball and her husband Desi Arnaz. Ball’s career as an entertainer also included the successful radio show “My Favorite Husband” (1947-1951) and numerous motion-picture roles. She received an Emmy Award for best comedienne in 1952 and Emmy Awards for best actress in 1955, 1967, and 1968.The Everett Collection, Inc.By the mid-1950s the so-called Big Three radio broadcasting networks (NBC, CBS, and ABC) had successfully secured American network television as their exclusive domain. It was not until the mid-1980s that a fourth company, News Corporation, Limited, owned by Australian-born executive Rupert Murdoch, broke this oligopoly with the establishment of the Fox television network (see Fox Broadcasting Company). In the 1990s Paramount Pictures (today a division of Viacom, Inc.) established UPN, and Warner Bros. (now a division of Time Warner Inc.) established WB, bringing the number of American commercial television networks to six.The large-scale introduction of cable television (in which television signals are transmitted to paying subscribers by means of coaxial cable) decisively ended channel scarcity in the 1980s. Previously, viewing choices had been limited in most parts of the United States to the programming that CBS, NBC, and ABC developed or bought. The only alternatives to the Big Three were found solely in the largest cities: commercial independent stations that had no network affiliations, and noncommercial stations (known until the 1970s as educational stations, today called public stations). The independents offered mostly reruns (shows previously broadcast by a network) and a selection of older films and local sports events. In the beginning, the few existing noncommercial stations were poorly funded, airing mostly programs meant for schoolroom use in the daytime hours and a variety of documentaries, talk shows, and dramas in abbreviated prime-time schedules. These stations shared programming through a loose association known as National Educational Television (NET). Lacking network linkage technology, they typically shared programming by passing tapes from one station to another, a process known as bicycling. These stations would only begin to offer a solid alternative to commercial viewing some years after passage of the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, which brought reliable federal funding to NET stations and resulted in the creation of the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).Sid Caesar and Imogene CocaComedians Sid Caesar and Imogene Coca starred on television together from 1949 until 1954 in “Your Show of Shows,” a popular variety show. Known for his brilliant satire and witty improvisations, Caesar became one of the stars of 1950s television.